Are air quality perception and PM2.5 exposure differently associated with cardiovascular and respiratory disease mortality in Brussels? Findings from a census-based study.

BACKGROUND: There is ample evidence that air pollution increases mortality risk, but most studies are based on modelled estimates of air pollution, while the subjective perception of air quality is scarcely assessed. We aimed to compare the effects of objective and subjective exposure to air pollution on cardiorespiratory mortality in Brussels, Belgium. METHODS: Data consisted of the 2001 Belgian census linked to registry-based mortality data for the follow-up period 2001-2014. We included individuals aged >30 years of age residing in Brussels at baseline (2001). Air pollution exposure was assessed with objective (modelled annual mean concentrations of PM2.5 in micrograms per cubic metre, µg/m3) and subjective indicators (poor self-reported air quality perception in the census). We used Cox Proportional Hazard models with age as the underlying time scale to evaluate associations with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and respiratory disease mortality, and separately, ischaemic heart disease (IHD), cerebrovascular disease, and COPD excluding asthma mortality. We specified single- and two-exposure models and evaluated effect modification by neighbourhood unemployment rate. RESULTS: 437,340 individuals were included at baseline. During follow-up (2001-2014), 22,821 (5%) individuals had died from CVDs and 8572 (2%) from respiratory diseases. In single-exposure models, PM2.5 was significantly associated with an increased risk in CVD and IHD mortality (e.g. for IHD, per 5 µg/m3 increase: Hazard Ratio, HR:1.22, 95%CI:1.08-1.37), and poor air quality perception with COPD excluding asthma mortality (HR:1.23, 95%CI:1.15-1.33). Associations remained significant in the two-exposure models, and additionally, perception was associated with respiratory disease mortality. Associations became gradually stronger with increasing neighbourhood unemployment rate [e.g. in the highest, Q3: PM2.5 and cerebrovascular disease mortality (HR:1.53, 95%CI:1.04-2.24)]. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that objective and subjective exposure to air pollution increased the risk of dying from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases respectively in Brussels. These results encourage policies reducing pollution load in Brussels whilst considering socio-economic inequalities.

Urban green spaces and suicide mortality in Belgium (2001-2011): A census-based longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to green spaces is associated with improved mental health and may reduce risk of suicide. Here, we investigate the association between long-term exposure to residential surrounding greenness and suicide mortality. METHODS: We used data from the 2001 Belgian census linked to mortality register data (2001-2011). We included all registered individuals aged 18 years or older at baseline (2001) residing in the five largest urban areas in Belgium (n = 3,549,514). Suicide mortality was defined using the tenth revision of the World Health Organisation International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) codes X60-X84, Y10-Y34, and Y870. Surrounding greenness was measured using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) within a 300 m and 1,000 m buffer around the residential address at baseline. To assess the association between residential surrounding greenness and suicide mortality, we applied Cox proportional hazards models with age as the underlying time scale. Models were adjusted for age, sex, living arrangement, migrant background, educational attainment, neighbourhood socio-economic position. We additionally explored potential mediation by residential outdoor nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations. Finally, we assessed potential effect modification by various socio-demographic characteristics of the population (sex, age, educational attainment, migrant background, and neighbourhood socio-economic position). Associations are expressed as hazard ratios and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) for an interquartile range (IQR) increase in residential surrounding greenness. RESULTS: We observed a 7% (95%CI 0.89-0.97) and 6% (95%CI 0.90-0.98) risk reduction of suicide mortality for an IQR increase in residential surrounding greenness for buffers of 300 m and 1,000 m, respectively. Furthermore, this association was independent of exposure to NO2. After stratification, the inverse association was only apparent among women, and residents of Belgian origin, and that it was stronger among residents aged 36 or older, those with high level of education, and residents of most deprived neighbourhoods. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that urban green spaces may protect against suicide mortality, but this beneficial effect may not be equally distributed across all strata of the population.

Long-term exposure to residential green spaces and site-specific cancer mortality in urban Belgium: A 13-year follow-up cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Residing in greener areas may decrease the burden of chronic diseases, but the association with cancer is unclear. We studied the associations between residential green spaces and site-specific cancer mortality in urban Belgium. METHODOLOGY: We linked the 2001 Belgian census, register mortality data for 2001-2014, and environmental information (green spaces and air pollution) at baseline residence (2001). We included residents from the largest Belgian urban areas aged ≥ 30 years at baseline. Exposure to residential green spaces was assessed using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Urban Atlas, and perceived neighbourhood greenness (from the census). We used Cox proportional hazards models to obtain hazard ratios (HR) and their 95 % confidence intervals (95 %CI) of the mortality risk from lung, colorectal, breast (in women) and prostate cancer (in men) per interquartile range increment in residential green spaces. We further analyzed the role of outdoor air pollution and effect modification by age and socioeconomic position (SEP) in main associations. RESULTS: 2,441,566 individuals were included at baseline. During follow-up, 1.2 % died from lung cancer, 0.6 % from colorectal cancer, 0.8 % from breast cancer, and 0.6 % from prostate cancer. After adjustment, higher exposure to green spaces was associated with a reduced mortality risk from lung cancer and breast cancer [e.g., for NDVI within 300 m, HR:0.946 (95 %CI:0.924,0.970), and HR:0.927 (95 %CI:0.892,0.963), respectively], but not with colorectal or prostate cancer mortality. For the latter, a suggestive hazardous effect of green spaces was found. Air pollution seemed to have only a marginal role. Beneficial effects of greenspace were generally stronger in < 65-year-old, but no clear trend by SEP was found. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that residing in green areas could decrease mortality risk from lung and breast cancer, potentially independent from air pollution. Future studies should consider different indicators of greenspace exposure and investigate potential pathways underlying the associations.

Long-term exposure to residential greenness and neurodegenerative disease mortality among older adults: a 13-year follow-up cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Living in greener areas is associated with slower cognitive decline and reduced dementia risk among older adults, but the evidence with neurodegenerative disease mortality is scarce. We studied the association between residential surrounding greenness and neurodegenerative disease mortality in older adults. METHODS: We used data from the 2001 Belgian census linked to mortality register data during 2001-2014. We included individuals aged 60 years or older and residing in the five largest Belgian urban areas at baseline (2001). Exposure to residential surrounding greenness was assessed using the 2006 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) within 500-m from residence. We considered all neurodegenerative diseases and four specific outcomes: Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, unspecified dementia, and Parkinson's disease. We fitted Cox proportional hazard models to obtain hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of the associations between one interquartile range (IQR) increment in surrounding greenness and neurodegenerative disease mortality outcomes, adjusted for census-based covariates. Furthermore, we evaluated the potential role of 2010 air pollution (PM2.5 and NO2) concentrations, and we explored effect modification by sociodemographic characteristics. RESULTS: From 1,134,502 individuals included at baseline, 6.1% died from neurodegenerative diseases during follow-up. After full adjustment, one IQR (0.22) increment of surrounding greenness was associated with a 4-5% reduction in premature mortality from all neurodegenerative diseases, Alzheimer's disease, vascular and unspecified dementia [e.g., for Alzheimer's disease mortality: HR 0.95 (95%CI: 0.93, 0.98)]. No association was found with Parkinson's disease mortality. Main associations remained for all neurodegenerative disease mortality when accounting for air pollution, but not for the majority of specific mortality outcomes. Associations were strongest in the lower educated and residents from most deprived neighbourhoods. CONCLUSIONS: Living near greener spaces may reduce the risk of neurodegenerative disease mortality among older adults, potentially independent from air pollution. Socioeconomically disadvantaged groups may experience the greatest beneficial effect.

Long-term exposure to objective and perceived residential greenness and diabetes mortality: A census-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Residing close to green spaces might reduce diabetes mellitus (DM) risk; however, evidence for diabetes mortality is limited. Moreover, individual and neighbourhood social factors may determine DM risk. Exposure to green spaces may also depend on socioeconomic position (SEP). This study examined the associations between residential greenness and diabetes-related mortality, and the role of the social environment in these associations. METHODS: We used the 2001 Belgian census linked to mortality register data for the period 2001-2014. We included individuals aged 40-79 years old and residing in the five largest Belgian urban areas at baseline. Exposure to residential greenness was assessed with surrounding greenness using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) within 500-m of residence (objective indicator), and perceived neighbourhood greenness (subjective indicator). We conducted mixed-effects Cox proportional hazards models to obtain hazard ratios (HR) for diabetes-related mortality per interquartile range (IQR) increments of residential greenness. We assessed effect modification by social factors through stratification. RESULTS: From 2,309,236 individuals included at baseline, 1.2% died from DM during follow-up. Both residential greenness indicators were inversely associated with diabetes-related mortality after adjustment for individual social factors. After controlling for neighbourhood SEP, the beneficial association with surrounding greenness disappeared [HR 1.02 (95%CI:0.99,1.06)], but persisted with perceived neighbourhood greenness [HR 0.93 (95%CI:0.91,0.95)]. After stratification the inverse associations with perceived neighbourhood greenness were strongest for women, the lowest educated, and individuals residing in least deprived neighbourhoods. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that an overall positive perception of neighbourhood green spaces reduces independently the risk of diabetes-related mortality, regardless of the neighbourhood social environment. Nevertheless, neighbourhood SEP may be a strong confounder in the associations between diabetes-related mortality and greenness indicators derived from satellite images. Perception factors not captured by objective measurements of green spaces are potentially relevant in the association with DM, especially among disadvantaged groups.

Are we really all in this together? The social patterning of mortality during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium.

BACKGROUND: Belgium was one of the countries that was struck hard by COVID-19. Initially, the belief was that we were 'all in it together'. Emerging evidence showed however that deprived socioeconomic groups suffered disproportionally. Yet, few studies are available for Belgium. The main question addressed in this paper is whether excess mortality during the first COVID-19 wave followed a social gradient and whether the classic mortality gradient was reproduced. METHODS: We used nationwide individually linked data from the Belgian National Register and the Census 2011. Age-standardized all-cause mortality rates were calculated during the first COVID-19 wave in weeks 11-20 in 2020 and compared with the rates during weeks 11-20 in 2015-2019 to calculate absolute and relative excess mortality by socioeconomic and -demographic characteristics. For both periods, relative inequalities in total mortality between socioeconomic and -demographic groups were calculated using Poisson regression. Analyses were stratified by age, gender and care home residence. RESULTS: Excess mortality during the first COVID-19 wave was high in collective households, with care homes hit extremely hard by the pandemic. The social patterning of excess mortality was rather inconsistent and deviated from the usual gradient, mainly through higher mortality excesses among higher socioeconomic groups classes in specific age-sex groups. Overall, the first COVID-19 wave did not change the social patterning of mortality, however. Differences in relative inequalities between both periods were generally small and insignificant, except by household living arrangement. CONCLUSION: The social patterning during the first COVID-19 wave was exceptional as excess mortality did not follow the classic lines of higher mortality in lower classes and patterns were not always consistent. Relative mortality inequalities did not change substantially during the first COVID-19 wave compared to the reference period.

Social inequalities in the associations between urban green spaces, self-perceived health and mortality in Brussels: Results from a census-based cohort study.

This study examines the associations between residential urban green spaces (UGS) and self-perceived health and natural cause mortality, applying an intersectional approach across gender, education and migrant background. We used data from the 2001 Belgian census linked to register data on emigration and mortality for the period 2001-2014, including 571,558 individuals aged 16-80 residing in Brussels (80% response rate). Residential UGS were assessed with the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) within a 300 m buffer from the residential address and perceived neighbourhood greenness. Multilevel logistic and Cox proportional hazards regression models were conducted to estimate associations between UGS and poor self-perceived health at baseline and natural cause mortality during follow-up. Residential UGS were inversely associated with both outcomes, but there were differences between groups. The strongest beneficial associations among women were found in the lower educated, regardless of their migrant background. For men the strongest association was found in those with tertiary education and Belgian origin. No significant beneficial associations were found in men originating from low and middle-income countries. Applying an intersectionality approach is crucial to understand health inequalities related to UGS exposure. Further research in different geographical contexts is needed to contrast our findings.

Joint effect of paid working hours and multiple job holding on work absence due to health problems among basic education teachers in Brazil: the Educatel Study.

The objectives were to assess the joint effect of working hours paid per week and multiple job holding on sickness absence, by sex, among basic education teachers in Brazil. This study is based on a survey carried out over a representative sample of 5,116 active basic education teachers in Brazil between 2015 and 2016 (Educatel Study). We created a dummy variable to assess the joint effect of weekly paid working hours [standard (35-40 hours); part-time (< 35 hours); moderately long (41-50 hours); and very long (> 50 hours)] and multiple job holding (working in several schools - no/yes). Working 35-40 hours in one school was the reference category. We conducted Poisson regression models with robust variance to obtain prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) of the association with self-certified sickness absence and medically certified sickness absence. Models were adjusted for age, type of contract and salary, and stratified by sex. Significant associations with sickness absence were only found among teachers working in more than one school. Associations with self-certified sickness absence were found among women with standard and men with moderately long working hours, and for both women and men working > 50 hours (PR: 1.21, 95%CI: 1.09-1.35; PR: 1.40, 95%CI: 1.18-1.66; respectively). Associations with medically certified sickness absence were found among teachers working > 50 hours, among women (PR: 1.30, 95%CI: 1.03-1.63) and men (PR: 1.41, 95%CI: 1.04-1.92). Teachers working longer hours in several schools could be suffering health problems, deriving in work absence.

Joint effect of paid working hours and multiple job holding on work absence due to health problems among basic education teachers in Brazil: the Educatel Study / Efecto conjunto de las horas de trabajo remunerado y el pluriempleo sobre la ausencia al trabajo por problemas de salud en profesores de educacuión básica en Brasil: el Estudio Educatel / Efeito conjunto das horas de trabalho remunerado e de múltiplos empregos sobre o absenteísmo por motivo de saúde entre professores de ensino básico no Brasil: Estudo Educatel

Abstract: The objectives were to assess the joint effect of working hours paid per week and multiple job holding on sickness absence, by sex, among basic education teachers in Brazil. This study is based on a survey carried out over a representative sample of 5,116 active basic education teachers in Brazil between 2015 and 2016 (Educatel Study). We created a dummy variable to assess the joint effect of weekly paid working hours [standard (35-40 hours); part-time (< 35 hours); moderately long (41-50 hours); and very long (> 50 hours)] and multiple job holding (working in several schools - no/yes). Working 35-40 hours in one school was the reference category. We conducted Poisson regression models with robust variance to obtain prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) of the association with self-certified sickness absence and medically certified sickness absence. Models were adjusted for age, type of contract and salary, and stratified by sex. Significant associations with sickness absence were only found among teachers working in more than one school. Associations with self-certified sickness absence were found among women with standard and men with moderately long working hours, and for both women and men working > 50 hours (PR: 1.21, 95%CI: 1.09-1.35; PR: 1.40, 95%CI: 1.18-1.66; respectively). Associations with medically certified sickness absence were found among teachers working > 50 hours, among women (PR: 1.30, 95%CI: 1.03-1.63) and men (PR: 1.41, 95%CI: 1.04-1.92). Teachers working longer hours in several schools could be suffering health problems, deriving in work absence.

Resumen: El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el efecto conjunto de las horas laborales pagadas semanalmente y pluriempleo, en relación con las ausencias por enfermedad, según el por sexo, entre profesores de educación básica en Brasil. Este estudio se llevó a acabo sobre una encuesta de una muestra representativa de 5.116 profesores activos de educación básica en Brasil, entre 2015 y 2016 (Estudio Educatel). Creamos una variable dummy para evaluar el efecto conjunto de las horas laborales pagadas semanalmente [estándar (35-40 horas); a tiempo parcial (< 35 horas); moderadamente largas (41-50 horas); y muy largas (> 50 horas)] y el pluriempleo (trabajando en varias escuelas no/sí). Estar trabajando 35-40h en una escuela fue la categoría de referencia. Se realizaron modelos de regresión de Poisson con varianza robusta para obtener la razón de prevalencia (RP) e intervalos de 95% de confianza (IC95%) de la asociación con las ausencias por enfermedad justificadas personalmente y las ausencias por enfermedad con certificado médico. Los modelos fueron ajustados por edad, tipo de contrato y salario, y estratificados por sexo. Las asociaciones significativas con ausencias por enfermedad se encontraron sólo entre profesores que trabajaban en más de una escuela. Las asociaciones con las ausencias por enfermedad justificadas personalmente se hallaron entre mujeres con horas de trabajo estándar y hombres con horas de trabajo moderadamente largas, y para ambos, mujeres y hombres trabajando > 50 horas (RP: 1,21, IC95%: 1,09-1,35; RP: 1,40, IC95%: 1,18-1,66; respectivamente). Las asociaciones con las ausencias por enfermedad con certificado médico se hallaron entre profesores trabajando > 50 horas, entre mujeres (RP: 1,30, IC95%: 1,03-1,63) y hombres (RP: 1,41, IC95%: 1,04-1,92). Los profesores que trabajan más horas en varias escuelas podrían estar sufriendo problemas de salud, ocasionando ausencias laborales.

Resumo: O estudo teve como objetivos avaliar o efeito conjunto das horas semanais de trabalho remunerado e do fato de ter vários empregos sobre o absenteísmo por motivo de doença entre professores de ensino básico, desagregado por sexo, no Brasil. Este estudo teve como base um inquérito realizado em uma amostra representativa de 5.116 professores de ensino básico em atividade no Brasil entre 2015 e 2016 (Estudo Educatel). Criamos uma variável dummy para avaliar o efeito conjunto das horas semanais de trabalho remunerado [padrão (35-40 horas); tempo parcial (< 35 horas); semana de trabalho moderadamente longa (41-50 horas) e muito longa (> 50 horas)] e múltiplos empregos (trabalho em mais de uma escola - não/sim). A categoria de referência foi o trabalho em uma única escola durante 35-40 horas semanais. Realizamos modelos de regressão de Poisson com variância robusta para obter razões de prevalência (RP) e intervalos de confiança de 95% (IC95%) para a associação com ausência no trabalho por motivo de saúde alegado pelo próprio indivíduo, e com atestado médico. Os modelos foram ajustados para idade, tipo de vínculo de trabalho e salário, e estratificados por sexo. Os resultados só mostraram associações significativas com absenteísmo por motivo de saúde em professores que trabalhavam em mais de uma escola. Foram observadas associações com ausência por motivo de saúde alegado pelo próprio indivíduo em mulheres com semana de trabalho padrão e em homens com semana moderadamente longa, e em mulheres e homens que trabalhavam mais de 50 horas por semana (RP: 1,21, IC95%: 1,09-1,35; RP: 1,40, IC95%: 1,18-1,66; respectivamente). Foram encontradas associações com ausência com atestado médico entre professores que trabalhavam mais de 50 horas por semana, em mulheres (RP: 1,30, IC95%: 1,03-1,63) e homens (RP: 1,41, IC95%: 1,04-1,92). Professores brasileiros que trabalham horas longas em várias escolas podem sofrer problemas de saúde, levando ao absenteísmo.